Computer science or computing science (sometimes abbreviated CS) is the study of the theoretical foundations of information Information, in its most restricted technical sense, is an ordered sequence of symbols. As a concept, however, information has many meanings. Moreover, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation and computation Computation is a general term for any type of process, algorithm or measurement; this often includes but is not limited to digital data. This includes phenomena ranging from human thinking to calculations with a more narrow meaning. Computation is a process following a well-defined model that is understood and can be expressed in an algorithm,, and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data//information, and provides output in a useful format systems.[1][2][3][4] It is frequently described as the systematic study of algorithmic In mathematics, computer science, and related subjects, an algorithm is an effective method for solving a problem expressed as a finite sequence of instructions. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and many other fields processes that create, describe, and transform information. Computer science has many sub-fields Computer science has a number of major sub-fields which can be classified by a number of means; some, such as computer graphics Computer graphics are graphics created using computers and, more generally, the representation and manipulation of image data by a computer, emphasize the computation of specific results, while others, such as computational complexity theory Computational complexity theory is a branch of the theory of computation in computer science and mathematics that focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty. In this context, a computational problem is understood to be a task that is in principle amenable to being solved by a computer. Informally, a, study the properties of computational problems In theoretical computer science, a computational problem is a mathematical object representing a collection of questions that computers might want to solve. For example, the problem of factoring. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and their individual features. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software engineering and linguistics. It is a studies approaches to describe computations, while computer programming Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging/troubleshooting, and maintaining the source code of computer programs. This source code is written in a programming language. The code may be a modification of an existing source or something completely new. The purpose of programming is to create a program that exhibits a certain applies specific programming languages A programming language is an artificial language designed to express computations that can be performed by a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behavior of a machine, to express algorithms precisely, or as a mode of human communication to solve specific computational problems, and human-computer interaction Human–computer interaction is the study of interaction between people (users) and computers. It is often regarded as the intersection of computer science, behavioral sciences, design and several other fields of study. Interaction between users and computers occurs at the user interface (or simply interface), which includes both software and focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to people Humans, known taxonomically as Homo sapiens , are the only living species in the Homo genus of bipedal primates in Hominidae, the great ape family. However, in some cases "human" is used to refer to any member of the genus Homo.
The general public sometimes confuses computer science with careers that deal with computers (such as the noun Information Technology Information technology is "the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware", according to the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA). IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to), or think that it relates to their own experience of computers, which typically involves activities such as gaming, web-browsing, and word-processing. However, the focus of computer science is more on understanding the properties of the programs used to implement software such as games and web-browsers, and using that understanding to create new programs or improve existing ones.[5]
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History
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The early foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks, such as the abacus The abacus, also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool used primarily in parts of Asia for performing arithmetic processes. Today, abacuses are often constructed as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires, but originally they were beans or stones moved in grooves in sand or on tablets of wood, stone, or metal. The abacus was in use, have existed since antiquity. Wilhelm Schickard Wilhelm Schickard was a German polymath who built one of the first calculating machines in 1623 built the first mechanical calculator in 1623.[6] Charles Babbage Charles Babbage, FRS was an English mathematician, philosopher, inventor, and mechanical engineer who originated the concept of a programmable computer. Parts of his uncompleted mechanisms are on display in the London Science Museum. In 1991, a perfectly functioning difference engine was constructed from Babbage's original plans. Built to designed a difference engine The Difference Engine was an automatic, mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions. Both logarithmic and trigonometric functions can be approximated by polynomials, so a difference engine can compute many useful sets of numbers in Victorian The Victorian era of the United Kingdom was the period of Queen Victoria's reign from June 1837 until her death on the 22nd of January 1901. The reign was a long period of prosperity for the British people, as profits gained from the overseas British Empire, as well as from industrial improvements at home, allowed an educated middle class to times[7] helped by Ada Lovelace Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace , born Augusta Ada Byron, was an English writer chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's early mechanical general-purpose computer, the analytical engine. Her notes on the engine include what is recognised as the first algorithm intended to be processed by a machine; as such she is regarded as the.[8] Around 1900, punch-card machines A keypunch is a device for manually entering data into punched cards by precisely punching holes at locations designated by the keys struck by the operator. Early keypunches were manual devices. Later keypunches were mechanized, often resembled a small desk, with a keyboard similar to a typewriter, and with hoppers for blank cards and stackers for[9] were introduced. However, all of these machines were constrained to perform a single task, or at best some subset of all possible tasks.
During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors.[10] As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation Computation is a general term for any type of process, algorithm or measurement; this often includes but is not limited to digital data. This includes phenomena ranging from human thinking to calculations with a more narrow meaning. Computation is a process following a well-defined model that is understood and can be expressed in an algorithm, in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.[11][12] The first computer science degree program in the United States was formed at Purdue University Purdue University, located in West Lafayette, Indiana, U.S., is the flagship university of the six-campus Purdue University System. Purdue was founded on May 6, 1869, as a land-grant university when the Indiana General Assembly, taking advantage of the Morrill Act, accepted a donation of land and money from Lafayette businessman John Purdue to in 1962.[13] Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own right.
Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population.[14] It is the now well-known IBM International Business Machines (NYSE: IBM) is a multinational computer, technology and IT consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States. IBM is the world's fourth largest technology company and the second most valuable global brand (after Coca-Cola). IBM is one of the few information technology companies with a brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. "Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating...if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again".[14] During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.
Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computer science technology. Modern society has seen a significant shift from computers being used solely by experts or professionals to a more widespread user base.
Major achievements
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Despite its short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science Science is, in its broadest sense, any systematic knowledge that is capable of resulting in a correct prediction or reliable outcome. In this sense, science may refer to a highly skilled technique, technology, or practice and society A society or a human society is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations such as social status, roles and social networks. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals sharing a distinctive culture and institutions. Without an article, the term refers either to the entirety of. These include:
- The start of the "digital revolution," which includes the current Information Age The Information Age, also commonly known as the Computer Age or Information Era, is an idea that the current age will be characterized by the ability of individuals to transfer information freely, and to have instant access to knowledge that would have been difficult or impossible to find previously. The idea is linked to the concept of a Digital and the Internet The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and.[16]
- A formal definition of computation Computation is a general term for any type of process, algorithm or measurement; this often includes but is not limited to digital data. This includes phenomena ranging from human thinking to calculations with a more narrow meaning. Computation is a process following a well-defined model that is understood and can be expressed in an algorithm, and computability Computability refers to the ability to solve a problem in an effective manner. It is a key topic of the field of computability theory within mathematical logic and computer science. The computability of a problem is closely linked to the existence of an algorithm to solve the problem, and proof that there are computationally unsolvable In computability theory and computational complexity theory, an undecidable problem is a decision problem for which it is impossible to construct a single algorithm that always leads to a correct yes-or-no answer — the problem is not decidable and intractable Intractable is an adjective describing high complexity, which makes it difficult to change, manipulate, or resolve an issue problems.[17]
- The concept of a programming language A programming language is an artificial language designed to express computations that can be performed by a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behavior of a machine, to express algorithms precisely, or as a mode of human communication, a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction.[18]
- In cryptography Cryptography is the practice and study of hiding information. Modern cryptography intersects the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, and engineering. Applications of cryptography include ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic commerce, breaking the Enigma machine Cryptanalysis of the Enigma enabled the Allies in World War II to read substantial amounts of secret Morse-coded radio communications of the Axis powers enciphered using Enigma machines. This Allied reading yielded military intelligence which, along with that from other decrypted German radio transmissions, was given the name Ultra was an important factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II.[15]
- Scientific computing Computational science is the field of study concerned with constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using computers to analyse and solve scientific problems. In practical use, it is typically the application of computer simulation and other forms of computation to problems in various scientific disciplines enabled advanced study of the mind, and mapping of the human genome became possible with the Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project was an international scientific research project with a primary goal to determine the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA and to identify and map the approximately 20,000–25,000 genes of the human genome from both a physical and functional standpoint.[16] Distributed computing Distributed computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed systems. A distributed system consists of multiple autonomous computers that communicate through a computer network. The computers interact with each other in order to achieve a common goal. A computer program that runs in a distributed system is called a distributed projects such as Folding@home Folding@home (sometimes abbreviated as FAH or F@h) is a distributed computing (DC) project designed to perform computationally intensive simulations of protein folding and other molecular dynamics (MD), and to improve on the methods available to do so. It was launched on October 1, 2000, and is currently managed by the Pande Group, within Stanford explore protein folding Protein folding is the physical process by which a polypeptide folds into its characteristic and functional three-dimensional structure from random coil. Each protein exists as an unfolded polypeptide or random coil when translated from a sequence of mRNA to a linear chain of amino acids. This polypeptide lacks any developed three-dimensional.
- Algorithmic trading In electronic financial markets, algorithmic trading or automated trading, also known as algo trading, black-box trading or robo trading, is the use of computer programs for entering trading orders with the computer algorithm deciding on aspects of the order such as the timing, price, or quantity of the order, or in many cases initiating the order has increased the efficiency Economic efficiency is used to refer to a number of related concepts. It is the using of resources in such a way as to maximize the production of goods and services. One economic system is more efficient than another if it can provide more goods and services for society without using more resources. In absolute terms, a system can be called and liquidity In business, economics or investment, market liquidity is an asset's ability to be sold without causing a significant movement in the price and with minimum loss of value. Money, or cash on hand, is the most liquid asset. An act of exchange of a less liquid asset with a more liquid asset is called liquidation. Liquidity also refers both to a of financial markets by using artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. Textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents," where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy, who, machine learning, and other statistical and numerical techniques on a large scale.[19]
Areas of computer science
As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.[20][21] The Computer Sciences Accreditation Board (CSAB) [22] – which is made up of representatives of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society (IEEE), and the Association for Information Systems (AIS) – identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science.[20]
Theoretical computer science
The broader field of theoretical computer science encompasses both the classical theory of computation and a wide range of other topics that focus on the more abstract, logical, and mathematical aspects of computing.
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Mathematical logic Automata theory Number theory Graph theory Type theory Category theory Computational geometry Quantum computing theory
Theory of computation
According to Peter J. Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be (efficiently) automated?"[11] The study of the theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, computability theory examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation. The second question is addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a computational problem.
The famous "P=NP?" problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems,[23] is an open problem in the theory of computation.
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P = NP ? GNITIRW-TERCES Computability theory Computational complexity theory Cryptography
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Wed, 11 Aug 2010 16:41:57 GMT+00:00
breakthrough: The end of P = NP? InfoWorld It's a classic problem -- many consider it to be the fundamental unsolved problem in computer science -- and it has a long history. HP boffin claims million-dollar maths prize Register Computer scientist Vinay Deolalikar claims to have solved maths riddle of P vs NP Telegraph.co.uk P, NP, And Is Academia Inhospitable to Big Discoveries? Psychology Today (blog) Forbes (blog) - Nature.com - Wikinews
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istud quis cx whoami Quis istud quis cx whois Quis I m a Dutch coder I spend my spare time with working on stupid projects See Projects under Service and spill too much time on IRC More info might come later You can see some info about my
Sun, 11 Mar 2007 19:29:46 PDT
Explore the possible future though computer science. Features a flying robot, wearable computer devices and some nice skateboarding. Video from ... youtube.com.
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hu, 09 Sep 2010 14:09:41 GM
The School of . Computer Science. had 60% of its staff rated at 4* ( world-leading in terms of originality, significance and rigour, the highest available) or 3* in the most recent UK Research Assessment Exercise. ...
